Strategies to Estimate Rainfall

Strategies to Estimate Rainfall Accurate rainfall estimation is an important and challenging task and the spatial distribution of the rain gauge is a most important factor in providing reliable areal rainfall. Modern rainfall network established to monitor hydrological features should provide the necessary and real-time information for purposes such as management of water resources, reservoir operation and flood forecast and control (Chen et al., 2008). Direct measurement of rainfall can only be achieved by rain gauges, and rain gauge networks are often installed to provide measurements that characterize the temporal and spatial variations of rainfall (Cheng et al., 2008). However, even if rain gauges are capable of providing real time rainfall information at very fine temporal resolution under the help of automatic rainfall record equipments, it is still difficult to characterize the spatial variation of rainfall without a well-designed rain gauge network in the catchment. A well designed rain gauge network with proper densities and distributions is essential to provide the valid precipitation information reflecting the spatial-temporal features in a catchment. However, most river basins of the world are poorly gauged or ungauged, and most rain gauge networks applied for hydrological purposes are largely inadequate according to the most dilute density requirements of World Meteorological Organization (WMO). WMO recommends certain densities of rain gauges to be followed for different types of basins such as 500 km2 per gauge is recommended in flat regions of temperate zones, while 25 km2 per gauge is recommended for small mountainous islands with irregular precipitation (WMO, 1994). Moreover, many non-hydrological factors considerably impacted the rain gauge network design, e.g. accessibility, cost and easiness of maintenance, topographical aspects, etc. However, many reviews have noted a marked decline in the amount of hydrometric data being collected in many parts of the world (WMO, 1996; Stokstad, 1999). The decline of hydrometric gauges exists not only in developing countries, but also happens in developed countries, e.g. the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) network had undergone some significant reductions in the mid-1990s (Mason and York, 1997; Pyrce, 2004). This decline in hydrometric gauges means that at a time when global warming may be exacerbating weather extremes and water shortages, scientists are less able to monitor water supplies, predict droughts, and forecast floods than they were 30 years ago (Stokstad, 1999). In recent years, satellite remote sensing seems to have the potential to provide full spatial coverage of pixel rainfall estimates, however, many studies have pointed out that the satellite based rainfall data still could not provide accurate rainfall estimates to match rain gauge measurements and could not meet the requirements of hydrological modelling on daily base (e.g. Hughes, 2006; Dinku et al., 2008; Li et al., 2012, 2014). Furthermore, the satellite based precipitation data have to be calibrated with the rainfall provided by the existing rain gauges to correct the bias, and the bias correction results considerably depend on the rain gauge density and distribution. Meanwhile, the widely application of satellite based precipitation data has a consequence of the deterioration of rain gauge networks in some cases (Ali et al., 2005). Tsintikidis et al. (2002) demonstrated that even when lumped models are used for flood forecasting, a proper gauge network can significantly improve the results. Thus, to build a rain gauge network contains a minimum density of rain gauges from removing redundancy gauges which contain less information is crucial under the background of rain gauge networks deterioration. It can help to understand how the distribution of rain gauges impacts the capability of network and qualify of rainfall information provided by the network. Rain gauge network design is to analyse the number and location of stations necessary for achieving the required accuracy (Bras, 1990) and meet the objective of information provided by the network as efficiently and economically as possible (Hackett, 1966). Varies approaches using optimal selection of rainfall gauges have been applied in designing rain gauge network to yield greater precise of rainfall estimation with minimum cost. Eulogio (1998) presented an optimal network design for the estimation of areal mean rainfall events by using simulated annealing method which demonstrated that the simulated annealing algorithm of random search for optimal location of rain gauges took into account the double criterion of estimation accuracy and economic cost. Patra (2001) applied a statistical theory for rain gauge network design. The study took use the coefficient of variance and the acceptable percentage of error range to estimate the optimal number of rain gauges. St-Hilaire et al. (200 3) evaluated the impact of meteorological network density on the estimation of basin precipitation and runoff in five drainage basins in Mauricie watershed in Quebec, Canada by using Kriging method to estimate the spatial distribution and variance of rainfall. Dong et al. (2005) used variance reduction analysis method to find the appropriate quantity and location of rain gauges in Qingjiang River Basin, China for flow simulation. The study demonstrated that both cross correlation coefficient and modelling performance increase hyperbolically and level off after five rain gauges for the study area. Anctil et al. (2006) applied the method of randomly selection of rain gauges to produce subsets of rain gauge network to optimize the mean daily areal rainfall series in Bas-en-Basset watershed, southern France and using genetic algorithm to orient the rain gauge combinatorial problem toward improved forecasting performance. BÃ ¡rdossy and Das (2008) studied the influence of the spatial resolution of rainfall input on the model calibration and application by varying the distribution of the rain gauge network via External Drift Kriging method (EDK) in southwest of Germany and pointed out that the overall performance of the HBV model worsens radically with an excessive reduction of rain gauges, while there is no significant improvement of the model by increasing the number of rain gauges more than a certain threshold number. Chen et al. (2008) applied Kriging and entropy algorithm to design the rain gauge network which contains the minimum number of rain gauges and optimum spatial distribution in Taiwan, China. The summer flash rainfall exhibits particularly high spatiotemporal variability and produces severe, quick, and sharply peaked flash flooding at the study site (Desilets et al., 2008), and the monitoring of summer flash rainfall represents the most difficult and important challenge for a rain gauge network designed for flood prediction. Volkmann et al. (2010) designed rain gauge networks for flash flood prediction in semiarid catchments with complex terrain to predict flash flood. The results revealed that the multi-criteria strategy provided a robust design by which a sparse but accurate network of rain gauges could be implemented for semiarid basins such as the one studied. Precipitation gauge network structure is not only dependent on the station density; station location also plays an important role in determining whether information is gained properly. Gupta et al. (2002) and Yatheendradas et al. (2008) pointed out that rapidly changing patterns of precipitation over mountains are poorly monitored, and there are gaps in the information important to the modelling of runoff generation which makes it difficult to obtain sufficient leading time and accuracy on hydrological forecasts. Therefore, the design of hydrological measurement networks has received considerable attention in research settings. The issue of optimizing rain gauge network can be formulated as that of finding the locations of a limited number of rain gauges which provide sufficient rainfall information of both the spatial distribution and the areal mean precipitation. Thus, the main objectives of this paper are motivated to: (1) understand and quantify the variability of the precipitation in catchment scale using the Shannon’s entropy and mutual information method; (2) design and evaluate a new entropy theory based multi-criteria strategy for identifying the best locations for installation of rain gauges based on the existing dense rain gauge network; and (3) evaluate the impact of the different rain gauge networks on hydrological simulation by using the lumped and distributed hydrological models.

A Case Study On Aspergers Syndrome Education Essay

A Case Study On Aspergers Syndrome Education Essay The Aspergers Syndrome is a mild form of autism which is seen in children of school bearing age. Yet since it is a mild form of the neurobiological disorder, some children who are suffering from Aspergers Syndrome are enrolled in mainstream classroom in order to interact with other children without the disability. This research will disclose how a child who is suffering from Aspergers Syndrome might react into the learning development when they are exposed with other students. Over the years it has been noticed that it is not always in the best interests of children with Aspergers Syndrome, a mild form of autism to be working in groups in a mainstream classroom for their social development. Yet recent studies show that incorporating Aspergers children in mainstream schools might be able to help the childs social development. Those children whose needs are not at the severe end of the spectrum disorder were successfully included in mainstream schools and were able to cope accordingly. There will be a need for flexibility and recognition that the child may need some approaches different to those used for other learners. These techniques and practices will be disclosed in the latter parts of the paper. Currently the writer is working with a child who was diagnosed with Aspergers Syndrome. Though the child displays a mild form of autism, the child was enrolled in a mainstream school. Due to this, the researcher would want to determine how a mainstream classroom would be able to support this child. According to Downshen (2010), there are few facilities which specialises in providing the special needs of children diagnosed with Aspergers Syndrome. Some of the children with this disorder were placed in mainstream schools, and their development would depend greatly upon the support and encouragement they can receive from parents, teachers, caregivers, and peers. For those other families, they prefer to place their children in a specialised institution for those with learning disabilities or autism. Many people with Aspergers Syndrome can function accordingly in most aspects, so the condition does not limit a childs development and success in academic and social standing. They will still be able to cope and learn as well as their peers in the classroom (ibid). Accordingly, in a study conducted by Epp (2008), she has indicated that kids with Aspergers Syndrome can still excel in mainstream classrooms and be enrolled in public schools. Since some schools do not accept children who have violent and screening behaviors, there is an instrument being used by schools to determine the verbal and cognitive skills of children. This tool will be discussed in detail in the latter parts of the study. Aspergers Syndrome is named after Hans Asperger, a paediatrician who first described the behaviour patterns which defines the illness. In 1940s, most of Aspergers patients who were suffering from the condition were males. Though they had normal language development and intelligence, the boys were impaired in their social skills, and have poor motor skills and coordination, as well as inefficient when communicating with other peers (Downshen, 2010). The illness was then diagnosed as a mild form of autism by the Asperger Syndrome Coalition of the United States. Most patients who suffer from the illness are children in the ages of 3 to 9 (Ibid). It is characterized by displaying poor social interactions, odd speech patterns, obsessive behaviours, and other unusual mannerisms in the age group of the child. Medical practitioners and educational staff were able to determine who among the children displays Aspergers Syndrome since sufferers have limited facial expressions and some were known to be obsessive in their routines. A small change in routine might set a tantrum, wherein the child would have unusual sensitivity to given sensory stimuli, such as sensing a bright light which the other kids are not able to see, and hearing a high-pitched sound which was unheard by other children. According to Downshen (2010), most children with Aspergers Syndrome were able to function and cope normally in daily activities. Aside from some odd behaviors and being socially immature, there are few other indicators that a child might be suffering from the illness. A child with Aspergers Syndrome might have motor delays, limited interests which would depend on routines, clumsiness, and unusual preoccupations. They tend to be aloof from other children with no social understanding of their actions. When they enter adulthood, they would have difficulty in demonstrating empathy for their peers, as well as be socially unable to relate to their peers. Some say that the disease lasts a lifetime with no immediate cures, yet the symptoms could wane over time, and early detection of the disease could help the child development in the areas wherein they need support (ibid). Similarly, Aspergers Syndrome is a part of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Autism Spectrum Disorders are a wide-range of developmental disabilities which includes but are is not limited to autism and other neurobiological disorders with similar characteristics and symptoms (ibid).The term spectrum disorders is made in such a way that symptoms are similar with each other, and though there different combinations of such symptoms, the degree of the illnesses severity could be on completely opposing sides. For example, two children might be diagnosed with the same neurobiological disorder, yet they might display different coping mechanisms and speeches. One might be extremely intelligent in academic works, but lacking in coordination skills in sports, whilst the other might be extremely gifted in physical activities, yet have a hard time coping with academic reports. There is a wide range of skills and abilities which could affect a child who is suffering from spectrum disorders (ibid). The study will only focus on the autism behaviour of Aspergers Syndrome, which is a mild form of autism. The researcher will not include studies and references for other forms of behaviours, and is limited on the study for AS only. The researcher does not wish to find a cure for the disorder, but aims to determine how to help children with AS be able to cope properly in mainstream classrooms without compromising their ability to learn. The research will focus on one case study of a boy with AS whom the researcher is currently working with. This boy is enrolled in a mainstream school and a mainstream classroom, both of which information will not be disclosed for the sake of keeping the boys personality and the schools name anonymous. The researcher does not wish to make the boy and the school as inanimate objects of the study, but would rather use them as a means of gathering information for the general welfare of children with AS. Lastly, the research will not include other documented cases of AS aside from the case study, except for references sake for the literature review. The educational instructors and practitioners in the said school will be interviewed for their opinions about the behaviour of the boy, and how he is able to cope in the mainstream school with his peers of the same age. The final format of this paper will contain six chapters. The first chapter is for the introduction, wherein the basics of the research would be disclosed. The Introduction would also contain the research questions and objectives. This would be followed by the second chapter which is the literature review which will inform the readers of what are articulately known today about the topic. All literatures which will be reviewed will be followed by the researchers narratives, explanations and opinions about them about the information they contain. There would be a confidentiality agreement between the participants of the case study, interviews, and other participants in the study. Before the start of the case study, the researcher will ask for the permission of parents and caregivers of the peers and classmates of the boy with AS. These caregivers and parents might have qualms about involving their children in such a study, but there could also be those who would willingly give their children the chance to be involved in such a complex study which could help children with AS in the future. After gaining the permission of the caregivers of children, the researcher will then set up the period of case study for the child with AS, and his educational providers and instructors. The researcher would establish the environment and basics of the case study, and will prepare all the needed materials to create a holistic environment. Finally, the researcher would give all educational instructors and participants their own forms for confidentiality agreement. They would be assured that their personal information will not be disclosed to any third party, and all results of the study would be purely academic. 3.8 Data Collection Methods Both primary and secondary data methodologies would be utilized in this research. The following would be the sources of data and information: 3.8.1 Primary Data All the primary data would be gathered from the primary sources of information of the researcher. These methodologies would be comprised of the case study, observation, and interviews with concerned individuals such as primary caregivers, parents, peers, and teachers of the child. They will be asked and gauged according to their proximity with the topic, as well as their experiences in coordinating with the child with AS. The primary data will also be taken from the researchers observation of the participants. These observations would be able to say a lot about the details of the research such as the credibility of their narratives and experiences. They will be asked about their experiences, and the researcher would be able to see how accurate their responses are based on their facial expressions and reasoning. 3.8.2 Secondary Data The secondary data would be derived from the contextual analysis to be done by the researcher. The researcher would perform a thorough and diverse investigation of the topic about recently published materials and articles for the line of research. The author would also indicate which among the materials are the most relevant to the study. 3.9 Conclusion The researcher would be an explanatory research with the interpretative approach which would be used to explain how the boy is coping up in a mainstream situation, as well as accurately interpret the situations and consequences of what the case study. After thoroughly explaining the researchs methodologies, the researcher have clarified the following: Case study the case study would be used in order to observe the child from his natural environment and how he is coping in a mainstream classroom for normal children. By having the case study, the researcher would be able to actively comprehend how practitioners could provide the child with adequate care for his situation. Observation the researcher would use the power of observation, such as observation sheets and narratives which would be compiled and scrutinized upon completion of the materials and data. Interviews people with close ties to the child would be interviewed for their intervention and advices about the topic, as well as how the child copes in an everyday setting. Contextual analysis by using this research method, the researcher would be able to understand how other experienced individuals have dealt with the research topic. These methods would help the research determine how working in a mainstream classroom will support a child with Aspergers Syndrome. He will also be gauged based on his ability to cope with other children who do not have neurobehavioral disorder, and how his learning in the classroom impacts the learning of other people. The researchs aims would be closely tied with the research methodologies. The data would be analyzed in a timely and accurate manner. The researcher would only focus on one child with Aspergers Syndrome, and focus on how he is coping and what are his needs in a mainstream environment. Doing such will keep the research accurate and valid. The narratives of other involved people would be judged according to their reactions and based on the observation, which would be based on how they react and answer questions. With the researcher asking in such close proximity, there would be little room for untruthful narratives.

Ice Hockey and Lacrosse :: essays research papers

Ice Hockey and Lacrosse   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Both Lacrosse and Ice hockey are two sports that share similar aspects. One example would be that they both require plenty of athletic prowess, as well as countless hours of training and practice to master. The high amount of contact in both sports enables a player to become both physically and mentally â€Å"tough†. Lacrosse has grown to its highest level of popularity it has ever reached over the last ten years. Ice hockey has seen a steady climb in its popularity over the past 25 years making it one of the most popular sports in not only Long Island, but all across the U.S. However, there are many differences as well, and we should not overlook the fact that there are plenty of distinctions between the two great sports. Many of which are the main reasons that these are obviously two separate sports.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The biggest similarity is the object of both games. To outscore the other team. The score is determined by points called goals. Ice hockey and lacrosse are contact sports. Opposing teams will try to â€Å"check† each other. This means that the teams are trying to literally knock the ball or puck out of possession of the other player. If a check becomes too violent, a penalty, which is another similarity between the two sports, will be called. Due to the aggressive nature of both sports, helmets and extensive padding are required to play without injury. Another thing they have in common is that the possession of the puck or ball is determined by a face-off. A face-off is when two opposing players battle for the puck or ball. Goalies are an essential part of both sports because the goalies are the last line of defense before the opposing team can score a goal. The goalie crease, in ice hockey as well as lacrosse, cannot be entered by any players because it gi ves the goalie an interference-free zone. Any goal scored by a team that is made from the goalie crease will not be counted. A final similarity would be that both sports have professional leagues. Ice hockey’s league is bigger than lacrosse, but they are both just as competitive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The biggest difference between ice hockey and lacrosse is the playing field. In hockey its ice, in lacrosse its grass. In addition to this would be the field dimensions. A lacrosse field is rectangular, while a hockey rink is oval.

Right To Die :: essays research papers fc

In John A. Robertson's essay, "Cruzan: No Rights Violated," he argues that the decision made by the Missouri Supreme Court to deny Nancy Beth Cruzan's parents' request to have their daughter's artificial nutrition and hydration tube removed was not a violation of Nancy Beth Cruzan's right to refuse treatment because she had not personally refused treatment. Robertson also claims that keeping Cruzan alive with this particular medical treatment does not alienate her constitutional rights, or her parents'. Robertson states that, " A permanently vegetative patient does not have interests that can be harmed," simply because he/she cannot feel pain and doesn't know his/her present condition. Robertson then goes on to say that simply assuming that one would decline treatment in that situation because of his/her prior beliefs is not enough evidence to maintain that the directive was, in fact, released by the said person, and to relieve their self from a state law that orders such a treatment, the person must have released a directive against that particular treatment. If one were to argue that an incompetent patient has the right to have their medical treatment decided by another person on the presumption that it follows with the patient's previous beliefs, Robertson would declare that the patient is much different than they were before and does not reserve a constitutional right to be managed in the same way they would have been. In placing the right to decide Nancy's treatment in her parents' hands, her parents would be acting in their own interests according to Robertson, and in choosing to stop medical treatment of their daughter, they would be denying their child medical care deemed necessary by the state, which is illegal. With this in mind, Robertson says that the Supreme Court should not extend a family's privacy to include the refusal of necessary treatment when the [above] treatment is not causing harm to the child. Next Robertson says that if a person wants to refuse treatment while incompetent, it is their obligation to make a directive before becoming incompetent in order to refuse treatment on the principle of that particular directive, and that requiring this is "not an undue burden on persons who wish to issue directives against medical care when incompetent." If "clear evidence" does not exist in a past directive, Robertson says that providing the treatment does not alienate a person's right to regulate his/her own care because of the lack of evidence.

The Advantages of Biobutanol Over Ethanol Essay -- Fuel, Gasoline, Alte

Ethanol has recently come under fire for a variety of reasons. Ethanol uses more energy to be produced that it can yield, it drives up the cost of food crops, and it cannot be shipped efficiently (Hargreaves.) So what can be done about the problems with ethanol? Is there a better option for alternative fuel? Yes, biobutanol is the answer. Biobutanol is butanol that has been created by a biomass fermentation process that is similar to ethanol, but the resulting fuel has a few key advantages. Biobutanol is more feasible fuel source then ethanol, it can make use of existing infrastructure, and biobutanol has been proven to replace gasoline gallon for gallon. Butanol is a four-carbon alcohol that is currently used as a commercial solvent. Butanol can be made from the same biomass that produces ethanol, and is called biobutanol when it is made from such a process to distinguish the fuel produced from petroleum based butanol. Using biobutanol as a fuel is beneficial because of biobutanol’s energy content. Bioutanol is capable of producing 110,000 Btu’s per gallon. When compared to ethano...

Noah Webster, A Man Who Loved Words by Elaine Cunningham :: Book Review Summary Report

The book I read was "Noah Webster, A Man Who Loved Words." It was written by Elaine Cunningham. The book has twelve chapters. The book has 176 pages in it. This book is a very good book. I would recommend it to anyone my age. The book was kind of sad also. In the beginning of the story, Noah is five. He was always eager to learn. Noah could not wait to learn. When he could go to school, he was so excited. One thing that was upsetting to Noah was that the older boys could only go to school during the cold seasons. On the first day of school, Noah was expecting to learn to read. They didn't, so Noah was upset. Once Noah was ten, he had to work on the farm. By then, Noah knew how to read and write. Noah read the books he borrowed from the priests. When Noah was fifteen, he went to college. He was really excited because there were teachers to meet, books to read, and lessons to learn. Noah was going to go to Yale University. The day he finally left, Noah was sad about leaving his family. His father helped him unpack. Noah's roommate was Oliver Walcott. In June of 1776, Noah got a letter from his father saying that there was going to be declaration of independence for the country from Great Britain. The letter also said there was going to be war. For the second year of college everyone was talking about the war. Noah wanted to help fight the British. A few days later, Noah got really sick. Noah had smallpox. Luckily, Noah got better really soon. In 1778, 21 year-old Noah graduated from college. Noah wanted to be a lawyer but he had no money or a job. Finally, Noah applied to be a teacher for the winter terms. His students loved him dearly. He enjoyed teaching. Noah promised a spelling book for his students. Still the students worked hard to please their school master. By 1781 Noah was a junior esquire attorney at law. He studied and studied. All that studying helped Noah. He mastered all the law books in his friend's library.

Comparing the Love in Beloved and Secrets and Lies :: Movie Film comparison compare contrast

Overbearing Love in Beloved and Secrets and Lies Children are protected from the evil in the world from their parents, especially their mothers. An excerpt written by Kahilil Girbran, The Prophet, explains one view of the parent/child relationship. "And a women who held a baby against her bosom said, Speak to us of Children. And he said: Your children are not your children. They are the sons and daughters of Life's longing for itself. They come through you but not from you, And though they are with you yet they belong not to you. You may give them your love but not your thoughts, For they have their own thoughts. You may house their bodies but not their souls, For their souls dwell in the house of tomorrow, which you cannot visit, not even in your dreams. You may strive to be like them, but seek not to make them like you. For life goes not backward nor carries with yesterday. You are the bows from which your children as living arrows are sent forth. The archer sees the mark upon the path of the infinite, and He bends you with His might that His arrows may go swift and far. Let your bending in the archer's hand be for gladness; For even as He loves the arrow that flies, so He loves also the bow that is stable.† -Kahlil Girbran (17-18) Girbran’s view of childhood is very well written. It explain to parents what place their children have their own thoughts and feelings. Their children are with them throughout life, but the children belong to their own life. Throughout childhood the love in the family can be very strong. The bond between a mother and child is almost unbreakable. It is amazing that a person was produced and lived inside a body for nine months. Parents are described as â€Å"the bows from which your children as living arrows are set forth.† (Gibran, 17) Their job is to raise their children to the best of their ability until they are old enough to be on their own. Mothers never want anything bad to happen to their own kids. Sometimes they are not able to let their children grow up like others. They are very overprotective, wanting to seclude their child from danger. In both the movie Secrets and Lies and in Toni Morrison’s book, Beloved, overprotective mothers are key characters .